Alienation

Fromm’s definition - Alienation is the mode of experience in which a person experiences him/herself as an alien or in other words becomes estranged from the self.

Horowitz’s definition - Alienation implies an intense separation first from objects of the world, second from people, and third from ideas about the world held by other people.

Weber’s concept of alienation emerges from perceived lack of freedom and control at work.

While Durkheim concept says that alienation is a consequence of the condition called anomie (which refers to the breakdown of norms in society leading to experienced normlessness).

Marx conceptualized alienation as the separation of the worker from ownership. He distinguishes three forms of alienation –

• Alienation from the product of work,
• Alienation in the process of production, and
• Alienation from society

The most basic understanding of alienation involves a separation or estrangement from work, the context or the self.

• Powerlessness: condition of the worker in capitalist society where the worker lacks control over his work.
• Meaninglessness: Cog in the machine. Worker is not able to see the relation of his or her work to the larger system of work.
• Normlessness: used to denote the social situation in which social norms regulating individual conduct have broken down or are no longer effective
• Isolation: ‘a feeling of separation from the group or of isolation from group standards’.
• Self Estrangement: ‘to be self alienated, means to be something less than one might ideally be’.

Marx has provided this theory as one of the reasons for revolution. The move from alienation to revolution, however, is more difficult than it seems. It requires several factors which are separate from alienation. This is most likely the reason why Marx stayed away from the ideas of alienation in his later work, preferring to use tension between the forces and relations of production, and the concept of exploitation as the cause of revolution.

Alienation provides an understanding of the problems of capitalism; it does not provide a means of escaping it.

Over a period of time, this becomes an institutionalized feeling. For me Alienation is a universal concept. On a given day, an individual can experience this phenomenon on multiple occasions. I am no exception. I feel alienated, when work allows limited autonomy, the absence of variety, challenge or creativity in work, work itself is not perceived as meaningful, work does not allow self expression, there are perceptions of low distributive justice and perceptions of low procedural justice. Alienation need not be confined to work…it can on anything. Each one of us experience alienation some way or the other. When the topic of discussion is something you are unaware of, you feel alienated.

More to come....

Summarizing the work of William L. Rowe on Sanskritization

The New Chauhans: A caste mobility movement in north India

End of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century, India has observed several instances of a caste mobility. Caste stratification, however, depended on a variety of socio-cultural factors like time and region. The Indian census, during this period, has recorded scores of petitions from different castes requesting a new status of recognition. Examples of such cases are –

1. Panchal Luhars (blacksmiths) claimed a recognition to Panchal Brahmans
2. Baria Kolis to Thakores
3. Kayatia Brahmans to Acharyas

Hindu to Islam conversions has not taken any exception in observing a similar phenomenon of caste mobility. For instance -

1. Puijara to Dhunak Pathans
2. Tais to Panni Pathans

You could follow three types of naming conventions here – choose the name of another higher caste, append the name of the Varna higher than the current (Kurmi to Kurmi Kshatriya), change the Varna status itself (eg: Functional Sudra caste, Teli (oil vendors) to Vaishya). The issue, India census faced during that period was in the verification process of the caste mobility claim.

Rowe's article also talks about a new type of ‘mobility movement’ which he terms ‘modern’ or ‘western’. Here, instead of changing the name of the caste, the general practices of the caste are reformed. This is very unlike Sanskritisation. The Sanskritc model focuses on the traditional customs and rituals.

According to the Indian census, 1920s have seen the maximum number of caste-name changes. With the times, the objective of the social movement has also changed drastically. The modern systems are more focused on the political/economic gains and special privileges of a subdued community.

The Chauhan movement

One of the successful caste mobility movements that occurred in the 19th century can be traced to North India. ‘Noniyas’, a Sudra caste from MP, UP and Bihar started the ‘Chauhan movement’, claiming their decent to the warrior clan, ‘the Chauhan Rajputs’.
To understand this movement, a comprehensive study of a particular ‘Noniya Chauhan community’ located 25 miles away from Benaras was done. The data for the study was collected from different places where ‘Noniya Chauhan communities’ lived which includes -

1. Kshatriya dominated multi-caste village of Senapur
2. Noniya chauhan leaders in the north Indian cites
3. Noniya chauhan leaders of the Bombay elite group
4. Senapur Noniya chauhans residing in the slums of Bombay

The results observed showcased wide gaps in the ranking. The rural communities do not associate themselves with the Chauhan movement. They are economically, politically and financially dependent on the other stronger castes of the region. While a contradictory observation was made in the urban societies. The interactions between the unsuccessful and the successful groups were often infrequent, uncomfortable and difficult.

The multi-caste village of Senapur, over the last 50 years has accommodated the Noniya chauhan mobility fairly well. Once belonged to the ‘almost untouchable’ caste, Noniyas, now rank as one of the top 10 castes of the village. The elderly people from the other ‘Kshatriya’ castes of the village do not share the conviction. They still perceive them to be the good old ‘rat hunters’.

The Noniyas

Noniya derives its name from the word ‘non’ which means ‘salt’. Noniyas are primarily salt manufacturers. However, over a period of time, they diversified in to different businesses like – land contracting, brick manufacturing and earth work for the British. Eventually, they gained a lot of wealth. Slowly they started to emerge as an economically stronger caste. This is where a small elite group of Noniyas emerged. They were dissatisfied with the discrepancy in their ritual status (rank) as compared to their economic status (rank). The group led to founding and financing of a ‘self-conscious’ caste mobility for Noniyas.

The Rajput advancement society

Lalla Mathura Prasad Singh, with his acquired wealth established the ‘Sri Rajput Pracarmi Sabha’ to advance the social position of Noniyas. This chauhan organization spread through the length and breadth of the northern India encouraging the Noniyas to emulate the life style of Rajputs. This includes practicing all their rituals, including donning of the sacred thread. The sacred thread symbolizes a ‘twice born’ status to the men belonging to the Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya varnas. This ceremony provided the ‘symbolic justification’ to their class mobility.
The participation of Noniyas in the 1857 revolt against British also formed a part of the social charter used to authenticate the Noniya’s claim for the Rajput status. The society even encouraged all the Noniya men to don the sacred thread and exhibit the caste brotherhood to eventually support the Chauhan movement.

Chauhan myth and literature

In the 12th century, Prithiviraj Chauhan, the last Hindu king, fought a battle with great valor against Mohd. Ghouri (a Muslim invader). Prithiviraj was betrayed by one of his own men, which resulted in his defeat in the battle. His threatening valor and fierce attitude in the battle startled the Muslim invader. He went on a mass massacre of all the men who belonged to the Chauhan clan. In a fit of despair, the remaining Chauhans fled to western parts of India.

To avoid a ruthless slaughter by the Muslims, they removed their scared threads to hide their identities. In one of the tales, a Muslim army official chases some Chauhans who in turn take shelter in the house of ‘untouchables’. When they are confronted by the Muslim officer on their identity, they claim to belong to the family of the untouchables. The Muslim officer demands a proof from the ‘chauhan refugees’ by eating the food served by the untouchables. Although the lives of these men might have been saved, they lost their 'caste rank' by eating the food of untouchables. This is a classic example of the chauhan clan decline.

Away from homes, these people had no source of income or livelihood. They were only allowed to enter the business of salt manufacturing. Over a period of time, these people were called as Noniyas. They earned meager amount to sustain a livelihood. The descendents of once a prosperous and powerful clan over a period of time lost their identity to be called the lower caste people.

Implications of the movement

The movement had its maximum affect on the elite Noniya communities only. There was a considerable reduction in the disparities between their ritual and economic hierarchies. However, some of the rural communities, to this date, still remained untouched by the movement.

Tracing the effects of chauhan movement in the Senapur village, high levels of initial remorse and animosity were exhibited toward the Noniyas. The Noniyas who tried to emulate the Rajput ritual of donning the sacred thread were beaten by the Kshatriya landlords of Senapur initially. As the time progressed, this practice was unopposed. But, a clear demarcation of people (Brahmins) associated with performing rituals of the ‘new Noniya Chauhan’ existed. Brahmins belonging to the dubious background and from a different village were called to perform rituals in the houses of Noniyas.

The influence of this new hierarchical position of Noniyas was so high that the regular animal sacrifices made to a goddess were replaced with flower and fruit offerings. The goddess, is no exception to the Sanskritisation process.

Over a period of time, the younger in the elite group started to take active part in promoting political egalitarianism and secularism. They had their influence from the ‘modern’ and the ‘western’ values, while ruling out and questioning the traditional stratification systems. The rituals continue to thrive despite the missing interest. There are conflicting ideas in terms of the ‘real’ achievement of this movement, but the ‘Noniya Chauhan’ caste remains to be a classic example for the caste mobility movement of India.